Scale Appropriate Mechanization (SAM): Business Models and Employment Generation in India

Sawargaonkar, G L and Yogi, A K and Kamdi, P J and Singh, Love and Shyam, D M and Singh, R (2026) Scale Appropriate Mechanization (SAM): Business Models and Employment Generation in India. Monograph. ICRISAT, Hyderabad.

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Global Research Program - Resilient Farm and Food Systems

Additional Information

This report was developed under the CGIAR Sustainable Farming Program, and the authors gratefully acknowledge the support of CGIAR funders for their financial and strategic guidance. We sincerely thank Mrs. Bhavani K for designing and formatting the report in accordance with the ICRISAT reporting framework. We also acknowledge the contributions of colleagues and partners across CGIAR and collaborating institutions for their technical inputs and feedback. The information, literature, and official statistics referenced in this report are duly acknowledged. Finally, we appreciate the support of field teams and stakeholders whose insights informed this work. We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: https://www.cgiar.org/funders/

Abstract

Smallholder farming systems across the globe, particularly in developing nations such as India, are confronting an escalating viability crisis. This challenge is largely driven by rising input costs, declining labour-use efficiency, reduced factor productivity, and suboptimal yield realization (Touch et al., 2024; Gorain & Datta, 2025). Both India and Africa exhibit wide agro-ecological diversity with a predominance of rainfed agriculture. The limited availability of time for executing essential field operations constrains by the erratic rainfall situation, often resulting in yield variability and production risk. To address these constraints, climate-resilient cropping systems based on sustainable intensification practices and technologies are increasingly being recognized as essential. Such systems enable farmers to adapt to projected climate change impacts and manage existing climate variability more effectively. Sustainable intensification represents not only a necessity but also an opportunity for resource-poor farmers in the semi-arid tropics (SAT) regions. However, progress toward this goal is hindered by low levels of farm mechanization. In addition, a decline in both draught animal populations and the availability of agricultural labour partly due to rural to urban migration-has further exacerbated the challenges facing these systems (Mehta et al., 2023). Given the heterogeneity of agricultural practices and cropping systems across Africa and India, context-specific adaptation and flexibility in technological interventions are crucial to meet the diverse needs of smallholders operating under varying agro-ecological conditions (Roy et al., 2023). Therefore, scale-appropriate mechanization options, designed to align with small and fragmented field sizes and limited resource endowments, are essential for advancing sustainable intensification. Such mechanization approaches can enhance the efficient use of soil, labour, water, nutrients, and energy resources while also delivering broader social benefits such as fostering rural entrepreneurship, increasing farm incomes, and reducing drudgery. Collectively, these interventions contribute significantly to food and nutrition security through the intensification and diversification of cropping systems (Reich et al., 2021; Sidhu et al., 2021).

Item Type:	Monograph (Monograph)
Divisions:	Global Research Program - Resilient Farm and Food Systems
CRP:	UNSPECIFIED
Series Name:	Project Report
Uncontrolled Keywords:	climate-resilient cropping systems, sustainable intensification practices, farm mechanization, Africa, India
Subjects:	Others > Farming Systems Others > Climate Resilient Technologies Others > Africa Others > India
Depositing User:	Mr Nagaraju T
Date Deposited:	30 Jan 2026 03:04
Last Modified:	30 Jan 2026 03:04
URI:	http://oar.icrisat.org/id/eprint/13437
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